August 25-29, 2008

LEARNINGS OF THE WEEK
By: Frea Diane T. Bautista

As of last week, we just have a quiz regarding about the C Programming Language, Flow Charts and Algorithms. Below, are the additional informations that I will share to you about the topics we've discussed last week.

First, C Language wasThe name of a programming language designed by Dennis Ritchie during the early 1970s and immediately used to reimplement Unix; so called because many features derived from an earlier compiler named ‘B’ in commemoration of its parent, BCPL. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) Before Bjarne Stroustrup settled the question by designing C++, there was a humorous debate over whether C's successor should be named ‘D’ or ‘P’. C became immensely popular outside Bell Labs after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming. C is often described, with a mixture of fondness and disdain varying according to the speaker, as “a language that combines all the elegance and power of assembly language with all the readability and maintainability of assembly language” See also languages of choice, indent style.

While, Flowcharting is a tool for analysing processes. It allows you to break any process down into individual events or activities and to display these in shorthand form showing the logical relationships between them. Constructing flowcharts promotes better understanding of processes, and better understanding of processes is a pre-requisite for improvement.

Examples of processes are "Receiving orders and entering them into the computer system" or "Converting dry-mix powder into tablet form" or "Following-up sales enquiries". The events which make up a process, and which appear in the flowchart, may be of any type. For example, they may be "taking a phone call", "completing an order form", "printing a report", "deciding between a number of alternatives", and so on. The symbols used to represent each event may take any form. They may be boxes, circles, diamonds or other shapes, or events may simply be described in words. Connections between events are always represented by lines; usually with arrowheads to show the direction or order in which they occur. These lines represent the flow of activity in the process being described; hence the name of the technique. (See the example in the `How to use it' section of this document.)

There are specialised applications for flowcharting (such as in computer systems design and programming, engineering, and science) which use standardised sets of symbols. You must decide for yourself whether these need to be used in your particular management application. In most circumstances this will either not be necessary or you can rely on three or four simple symbols to cover most types of events. A useful set of symbols is given in the `How to use it' section below. For special standardised symbols, see the `Other references' section of this document for sources you can refer to.

And lastly, Algorithm is a well-defined procedure to solve a problem. The study of algorithms is a fundamental area of computer science. In writing a computer program to solve a problem, a programmer expresses in a computer language an algorithm that solves the problem, thereby turning the algorithm into a computer program.

In many applications, a computer program needs to adapt to changes in its environment and continue to perform well. An approach to make a computer program adaptive is to use a self-organizing data structure, such as one that is reorganized regularly so that those components most likely to be accessed are placed where they can be most efficiently accessed. A self-modifying algorithm that adapts itself is also conceivable. For developing adaptive computer programs, biological evolution has been a source of ideas and has inspired evolutionary computation methods such as genetic algorithms.

Certain applications require a tremendous amount of computation to be performed in a timely fashion. An approach to save time is to develop a parallel algorithm that solves a given problem by using a number of processors simultaneously. The basic idea is to divide the given problem into subproblems and use each processor to solve a subproblem. The processors usually need to communicate among themselves so that they may cooperate. The processors may share memory, through which they can communicate, or they may be connected by communication links into some type of network such as a hypercube.

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LEARNINGS OF THE WEEK (August 25-29)

LEARNINGS OF THE WEEK

By: Cielito M. Cantero

IV - Rizal

Last week, we learn about about the C Programming Language, Flow Charts and Algorithms. There are additional informations and facts about it below.

C Language was the name of a programming language designed by Dennis Ritchie during the early 1970s and immediately used to reimplement Unix; so called because many features derived from an earlier compiler named ‘B’ in commemoration of its parent, BCPL.

(BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) Before Bjarne Stroustrup settled the question by designing C++, there was a humorous debate over whether C's successor should be named ‘D’ or ‘P’. C became immensely popular outside Bell Labs after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.

C is often described, with a mixture of fondness and disdain varying according to the speaker, as “a language that combines all the elegance and power of assembly language with all the readability and maintainability of assembly language” See also languages of choice, indent style.

Flowcharting is a tool for analysing processes. It allows you to break any process down into individual events or activities and to display these in shorthand form showing the logical relationships between them.

Constructing flowcharts promotes better understanding of processes, and better understanding of processes is a pre-requisite for improvement.
Examples of processes are "Receiving orders and entering them into the computer system" or "Converting dry-mix powder into tablet form" or "Following-up sales enquiries". The events which make up a process, and which appear in the flowchart, may be of any type. For example, they may be "taking a phone call", "completing an order form", "printing a report", "deciding between a number of alternatives", and so on. The symbols used to represent each event may take any form.

They may be boxes, circles, diamonds or other shapes, or events may simply be described in words. Connections between events are always represented by lines; usually with arrowheads to show the direction or order in which they occur. These lines represent the flow of activity in the process being described; hence the name of the technique. (See the example in the `How to use it' section of this document.)

There are specialised applications for flowcharting (such as in computer systems design and programming, engineering, and science) which use standardised sets of symbols. You must decide for yourself whether these need to be used in your particular management application. In most circumstances this will either not be necessary or you can rely on three or four simple symbols to cover most types of events. A useful set of symbols is given in the `How to use it' section below. For special standardised symbols, see the `Other references' section of this document for sources you can refer to.

The algorithm is a well-defined procedure to solve a problem. The study of algorithms is a fundamental area of computer science. In writing a computer program to solve a problem, a programmer expresses in a computer language an algorithm that solves the problem, thereby turning the algorithm into a computer program.

In many applications, a computer program needs to adapt to changes in its environment and continue to perform well. An approach to make a computer program adaptive is to use a self-organizing data structure, such as one that is reorganized regularly so that those components most likely to be accessed are placed where they can be most efficiently accessed. A self-modifying algorithm that adapts itself is also conceivable. For developing adaptive computer programs, biological evolution has been a source of ideas and has inspired evolutionary computation methods such as genetic algorithms.

Certain applications require a tremendous amount of computation to be performed in a timely fashion. An approach to save time is to develop a parallel algorithm that solves a given problem by using a number of processors simultaneously. The basic idea is to divide the given problem into subproblems and use each processor to solve a subproblem. The processors usually need to communicate among themselves so that they may cooperate.

The processors may share memory, through which they can communicate, or they may be connected by communication links into some type of network such as a hypercube.

Learnings of the Week (lorebeth betinol)

C language

First, C Language wasThe name of a programming language designed by Dennis Ritchie during the early 1970s and immediately used to reimplement Unix; so called because many features derived from an earlier compiler named ‘B’ in commemoration of its parent, BCPL. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) Before Bjarne Stroustrup settled the question by designing C++, there was a humorous debate over whether C's successor should be named ‘D’ or ‘P’. C became immensely popular outside Bell Labs after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming. C is often described, with a mixture of fondness and disdain varying according to the speaker, as “a language that combines all the elegance and power of assembly language with all the readability and maintainability of assembly language” See also languages of choice, indent style.
While, Flowcharting is a tool for analysing processes. It allows you to break any process down into individual events or activities and to display these in shorthand form showing the logical relationships between them. Constructing flowcharts promotes better understanding of processes, and better understanding of processes is a pre-requisite for improvement.
Examples of processes are "Receiving orders and entering them into the computer system" or "Converting dry-mix powder into tablet form" or "Following-up sales enquiries". The events which make up a process, and which appear in the flowchart, may be of any type. For example, they may be "taking a phone call", "completing an order form", "printing a report", "deciding between a number of alternatives", and so on. The symbols used to represent each event may take any form. They may be boxes, circles, diamonds or other shapes, or events may simply be described in words. Connections between events are always represented by lines; usually with arrowheads to show the direction or order in which they occur. These lines represent the flow of activity in the process being described; hence the name of the technique. (See the example in the `How to use it' section of this document.)
There are specialised applications for flowcharting (such as in computer systems design and programming, engineering, and science) which use standardised sets of symbols. You must decide for yourself whether these need to be used in your particular management application. In most circumstances this will either not be necessary or you can rely on three or four simple symbols to cover most types of events. A useful set of symbols is given in the `How to use it' section below. For special standardised symbols, see the `Other references' section of this document for sources you can refer to.
And lastly, Algorithm is a well-defined procedure to solve a problem. The study of algorithms is a fundamental area of computer science. In writing a computer program to solve a problem, a programmer expresses in a computer language an algorithm that solves the problem, thereby turning the algorithm into a computer program.
In many applications, a computer program needs to adapt to changes in its environment and continue to perform well. An approach to make a computer program adaptive is to use a self-organizing data structure, such as one that is reorganized regularly so that those components most likely to be accessed are placed where they can be most efficiently accessed. A self-modifying algorithm that adapts itself is also conceivable. For developing adaptive computer programs, biological evolution has been a source of ideas and has inspired evolutionary computation methods such as genetic algorithms.
Certain applications require a tremendous amount of computation to be performed in a timely fashion. An approach to save time is to develop a parallel algorithm that solves a given problem by using a number of processors simultaneously. The basic idea is to divide the given problem into subproblems and use each processor to solve a subproblem. The processors usually need to communicate among themselves so that they may cooperate. The processors may share memory, through which they can communicate, or they may be connected by communication links into some type of network such as a hypercube.

Learnings of the Week!!

By:Steffany Queen P. Bigoy

This week,I have learned a lot of things. These things are the following:

Read and learn about it.!

Have fun and take care.!

C (PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE)

In computing, C is a general-purpose, block structured, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.Although C was designed for implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing application software.It is widely used on a great many different software platforms and computer architectures, and several popular compilers exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which originally began as an extension to C.

C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language.Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage machine-independent programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with little or no change to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

Characteristics
Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within functions. Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is achieved in C by explicitly passing pointer values. Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be combined and manipulated as a unit. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator (not a delimiter).C also exhibits the following more specific characteristics:non-nestable function definitions, although variables may be hidden in nested blockspartially weak typing; for instance, characters can be used as integerslow-level access to computer memory by converting machine addresses to typed pointersfunction pointers allowing for a rudimentary form of closures and runtime polymorphismarray indexing as a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetica preprocessor for macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilationcomplex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions consistently delegated to library routinesaround 30 reserved keywordssyntax divergent from ALGOL, often following the lead of C's predecessor B, for example using{ ... } rather than ALGOL's begin ... endthe equal-sign for assignment (copying), much like Fortrantwo consecutive equal-signs to test for equality (compare to .EQ. in Fortran or the equal-sign in BASIC)&& and in place of ALGOL's and and or, whichare syntactically distinct from the bit-wise operators & and (used by B for both meanings)never evaluate the right operand if the result can be determined from the left alone (short-circuit evaluation)a large number of compound operators, such as +=, ++, etc.

HISTORY
Early developments
The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language.The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's lack of functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of the C programming language.The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.)

K&R C
In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R C". The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard.K&R introduced several language features:standard I/O librarylong int data typeunsigned int data typecompound assignment operators =op were changed to op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer, if its value was used.

For example:
long int SomeFunction();/* int OtherFunction(); *//* int */ CallingFunction(){long int test1;register /* int */ test2;test1 = SomeFunction();if (test1 > 0)test2 = 0;elsetest2 = OtherFunction();return test2;}
All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C.Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included:void functionsfunctions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)assignment for struct data typesenumerated typesThe large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C
During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1989, the standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the ISO C standard. National adoption of updates to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. The syntax for parameter declarations was also augmented to include the style used in C++, although the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written nowadays is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to take advantage of features available only in Standard C.

C99
After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas C++ continued to evolve, largely during its own standardization effort. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99." It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda. The international C standard is maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14.C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity) and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Sun Studio and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.As of 2007, work has begun in anticipation of another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1x". The C standards committee has adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that have not been tested by existing implementations.

USES OF C LANGUAGE
C's primary use is for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to "pun" types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low runtime demand on system resources.C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, although as applications became larger much of that development shifted to other, higher-level languages.One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.C is used as an intermediate language by some implementations of higher-level languages, which translate the input language to C source code, perhaps along with other object representations. The C source code is compiled by a C compiler to produce object code. This approach may be used to gain portability (C compilers exist for nearly all platforms) or for convenience (it avoids having to develop machine-specific code generators). Some programming languages which use C this way are BitC, Eiffel, Esterel, Gambit, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Lisp dialects, Lush, Sather, Squeak, and Vala.Unfortunately, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--.

HOW C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE WORKS?
The C programming language is a popular and widely used programming language for creating computer programs. Programmers around the world embrace C because it gives maximum control and efficiency to the programmer. If you are a programmer, or if you are interested in becoming a programmer, there are a couple of benefits you gain from learning C:You will be able to read and write code for a large number of platforms -- everything from microcontrollers to the most advanced scientific systems can be written in C, and many modern operating systems are written in C.The jump to the object oriented C++ language becomes much easier. C++ is an extension of C, and it is nearly impossible to learn C++ without learning C first.

LEARNINGS OF THE WEEK
By: Frea Diane T. Bautista


Last week, we have an oral recitation about the C Languag, its history, features and uses and the algorithms. I learned so much about programming last week. So, check out below, what we've discussed.

C (PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE)

In computing, C is a general-purpose, block structured, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.
Although C was designed for implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing application software.
It is widely used on a great many different software platforms and computer architectures, and several popular compilers exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which originally began as an extension to C.

C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language.
Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage machine-independent programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with little or no change to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

Characteristics

Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within functions. Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is achieved in C by explicitly passing pointer values. Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be combined and manipulated as a unit. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator (not a delimiter).
C also exhibits the following more specific characteristics:
non-nestable function definitions, although variables may be hidden in nested blocks
partially weak typing; for instance, characters can be used as integers
low-level access to computer memory by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
function pointers allowing for a rudimentary form of closures and runtime polymorphism
array indexing as a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic
a preprocessor for macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation
complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions consistently delegated to library routines
around 30 reserved keywords
syntax divergent from ALGOL, often following the lead of C's predecessor B, for example using
{ ... } rather than ALGOL's begin ... end
the equal-sign for assignment (copying), much like Fortran
two consecutive equal-signs to test for equality (compare to .EQ. in Fortran or the equal-sign in BASIC)
&& and in place of ALGOL's and and or, which
are syntactically distinct from the bit-wise operators & and (used by B for both meanings)
never evaluate the right operand if the result can be determined from the left alone (short-circuit evaluation)
a large number of compound operators, such as +=, ++, etc.

HISTORY

Early developments

The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language.
The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's lack of functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of the C programming language.
The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.)

K&R C

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R C". The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard.
K&R introduced several language features:
standard I/O library
long int data type
unsigned int data type
compound assignment operators =op were changed to op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10
Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.
In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer, if its value was used.

For example:

long int SomeFunction();
/* int OtherFunction(); */
/* int */ CallingFunction()
{
long int test1;
register /* int */ test2;
test1 = SomeFunction();
if (test1 > 0)
test2 = 0;
else
test2 = OtherFunction();
return test2;
}

All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C.
Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.
In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included:
void functions
functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
assignment for struct data types
enumerated types
The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1989, the standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.
In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.
ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the ISO C standard. National adoption of updates to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.
One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. The syntax for parameter declarations was also augmented to include the style used in C++, although the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.
C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written nowadays is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.
In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to take advantage of features available only in Standard C.

C99

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas C++ continued to evolve, largely during its own standardization effort. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99." It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda. The international C standard is maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14.
C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity) and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.
C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Sun Studio and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.
As of 2007, work has begun in anticipation of another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1x". The C standards committee has adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that have not been tested by existing implementations.

USES OF C LANGUAGE

C's primary use is for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to "pun" types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low runtime demand on system resources.
C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, although as applications became larger much of that development shifted to other, higher-level languages.
One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.
C is used as an intermediate language by some implementations of higher-level languages, which translate the input language to C source code, perhaps along with other object representations. The C source code is compiled by a C compiler to produce object code. This approach may be used to gain portability (C compilers exist for nearly all platforms) or for convenience (it avoids having to develop machine-specific code generators). Some programming languages which use C this way are BitC, Eiffel, Esterel, Gambit, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Lisp dialects, Lush, Sather, Squeak, and Vala.
Unfortunately, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--.

HOW C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE WORKS?

The C programming language is a popular and widely used programming language for creating computer programs. Programmers around the world embrace C because it gives maximum control and efficiency to the programmer. If you are a programmer, or if you are interested in becoming a programmer, there are a couple of benefits you gain from learning C:
You will be able to read and write code for a large number of platforms -- everything from microcontrollers to the most advanced scientific systems can be written in C, and many modern operating systems are written in C.
The jump to the object oriented C++ language becomes much easier. C++ is an extension of C, and it is nearly impossible to learn C++ without learning C first.

LEARNINGS OF THE WEEK (August 18 - 22 )

Learnings of the Week
By: Cielito M. Cantero
IV - Rizal

This week, I learned a lot about the C language. I also learned about it's history, features and uses. We also tackled about sequence and looping.

C (PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE)

In computing, C is a general-purpose, block structured, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.
Although C was designed for implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing application software.
It is widely used on a great many different software platforms and computer architectures, and several popular compilers exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which originally began as an extension to C.

C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language.
Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage machine-independent programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with little or no change to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

Characteristics

Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within functions. Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is achieved in C by explicitly passing pointer values. Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be combined and manipulated as a unit. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator (not a delimiter).
C also exhibits the following more specific characteristics:
non-nestable function definitions, although variables may be hidden in nested blocks
partially weak typing; for instance, characters can be used as integers
low-level access to computer memory by converting machine addresses to typed pointers
function pointers allowing for a rudimentary form of closures and runtime polymorphism
array indexing as a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic
a preprocessor for macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation
complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions consistently delegated to library routines
around 30 reserved keywords
syntax divergent from ALGOL, often following the lead of C's predecessor B, for example using
{ ... } rather than ALGOL's begin ... end
the equal-sign for assignment (copying), much like Fortran
two consecutive equal-signs to test for equality (compare to .EQ. in Fortran or the equal-sign in BASIC)
&& and in place of ALGOL's and and or, which
are syntactically distinct from the bit-wise operators & and (used by B for both meanings)
never evaluate the right operand if the result can be determined from the left alone (short-circuit evaluation)
a large number of compound operators, such as +=, ++, etc.

HISTORY

Early developments

The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language.
The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's lack of functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of the C programming language.
The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.)

K&R C

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language. This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as "K&R C". The second edition of the book covers the later ANSI C standard.
K&R introduced several language features:
standard I/O library
long int data type
unsigned int data type
compound assignment operators =op were changed to op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10
Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.
In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer, if its value was used.

For example:

long int SomeFunction();
/* int OtherFunction(); */
/* int */ CallingFunction()
{
long int test1;
register /* int */ test2;
test1 = SomeFunction();
if (test1 > 0)
test2 = 0;
else
test2 = OtherFunction();
return test2;
}

All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C.
Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.
In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included:
void functions
functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
assignment for struct data types
enumerated types
The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1989, the standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.
In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.
ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the ISO C standard. National adoption of updates to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.
One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. The syntax for parameter declarations was also augmented to include the style used in C++, although the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.
C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written nowadays is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.
In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to take advantage of features available only in Standard C.

C99

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas C++ continued to evolve, largely during its own standardization effort. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99." It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda. The international C standard is maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14.
C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity) and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.
C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Sun Studio and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.
As of 2007, work has begun in anticipation of another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1x". The C standards committee has adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that have not been tested by existing implementations.

USES OF C LANGUAGE

C's primary use is for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to "pun" types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low runtime demand on system resources.
C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, although as applications became larger much of that development shifted to other, higher-level languages.
One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.
C is used as an intermediate language by some implementations of higher-level languages, which translate the input language to C source code, perhaps along with other object representations. The C source code is compiled by a C compiler to produce object code. This approach may be used to gain portability (C compilers exist for nearly all platforms) or for convenience (it avoids having to develop machine-specific code generators). Some programming languages which use C this way are BitC, Eiffel, Esterel, Gambit, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler, Lisp dialects, Lush, Sather, Squeak, and Vala.
Unfortunately, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--.

HOW C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE WORKS?

The C programming language is a popular and widely used programming language for creating computer programs. Programmers around the world embrace C because it gives maximum control and efficiency to the programmer. If you are a programmer, or if you are interested in becoming a programmer, there are a couple of benefits you gain from learning C:
You will be able to read and write code for a large number of platforms -- everything from microcontrollers to the most advanced scientific systems can be written in C, and many modern operating systems are written in C.
The jump to the object oriented C++ language becomes much easier. C++ is an extension of C, and it is nearly impossible to learn C++ without learning C first.

This animation shows the execution of a simple C program. By the end of this article you will understand how it works!

We will walk through the entire language and show you how to become a C programmer, starting at the beginning. You will be amazed at all of the different things you can create once you know C!